How Republics Die: Plutarch and the Intra-elite Rivalries that Destroyed the Roman Commonwealth

Plutarch's Roman Lives present an unusual, if historically compelling, account of why the Roman Republic collapsed. Drawing on Polybius' political theory (sketched out in Histories 6.57), Plutarch suggests that after the fall of Carthage, traditional competition among elites began to spiral out of control. Not only did competition lead to increasingly violent clashes over scarce honours, it exacerbated the tensions between social classes, which the elites played off each other for personal gain. As the stakes of these rivalries increased, so too did the temptation to ignore or undo customary norms, especially for limits on executive offices. Intra-elite rivalry was doubly destructive: it led to the dismantling of the constitution and unleashed civil violence, and ultimately revolution. The political lesson that Plutarch provides is that elite rivalry must be skilfully managed in order to avoid winner-takes-all and oneupmanship.