Ecosystem services provision in sustainable agrosystems under global change: the case of the Montado

Montados are one of the most significant agroforestry systems in the Iberian Peninsula and serve as a good example of sustainable land management. Traditional practices, including extensive livestock grazing, play a crucial role in supporting a wide range of ecosystem services (ES). However, the vitality of the Montado is increasingly threatened by rural abandonment, rising temperatures and aridification, as the Mediterranean region is a major climate change hotspot. With nearly half of Portugal’s livestock production relying on Montado pastures, there is an urgent need for evidence-based management practices that promote the system's socioeconomic viability under low-intensity management.