This paper examines cannabis (Cannabis sp.) and opium (Papaver somniferum) in post-medieval Europe, with a focus on Portugal and regions shaped by global trade and colonial networks. Covering the sixteenth–nineteenth centuries, it synthesizes historical texts such as medical treatises, travel narratives, and ethnographic accounts, alongside fragmentary material evidence to trace how these substances were perceived, used, and culturally embedded. The sources suggest diverse roles, from therapeutic and recreational applications to broader symbolic meanings within early modern life. While the evidence is dispersed and often partial, the study contributes to a growing historiography of psychoactive substances in Europe. By foregrounding Portuguese examples within wider intellectual and cultural currents, it advances inquiry into how cannabis and opium intersected with evolving notions of the body, health, and consciousness in the early modern period.
Miguel Martins de Sousa (Wed,) studied this question.