Explaining gendered informality: how family policies shape women's participation in unregistered employment in Europe

Purpose Family policies aimed at reconciling the pressures of family and work shape women's employment outcomes. Yet, very few studies have examined their impact on employment that is not formally registered with authorities. The study aims to investigate whether, and to what extent, different family policies influence women's participation in unregistered employment. Design/methodology/approach The study used individual data from the 2004–2022 European Social Survey, combined with information on country-level indicators of family policies. Multi-level linear probability models were applied to analyse data. Findings Findings suggest that family policy arrangements that reinforce traditional gender norms and limit women’s economic opportunities contribute to gender disparities in unregistered employment. In countries with higher part‑time childcare coverage or shorter leaves, women were found to be more likely to take up unregistered jobs, most likely to balance paid work with caregiving responsibilities and/or to make ends meet. Given that unregistered employment is associated with poor working conditions and limited social protection, such policies may deepen the existing gender inequality in the labour market. In countries where women have more economic independence and fewer care obligations, the gender gap in unregistered employment was smaller. Originality/value This study addresses a critical gap in the literature by demonstrating that certain family policies may increase women's dependency on informal income sources.