India’s Chandrayaan programme represents a remarkable evolution in lunar exploration, showcasing the nation’s scientific ambition, technological advancement, and cost-effective space engineering. This paper presents a comparative analysis of Chandrayaan-1 (2008), Chandrayaan-2 (2019), and Chandrayaan-3 (2023), focusing on their objectives, mission design, technological complexity, scientific outcomes, challenges, and global significance. Chandrayaan-1 marked India’s entry into lunar science with the historic discovery of water on the Moon. Chandrayaan-2 attempted a complex soft landing near the lunar south pole, achieving partial success through its orbiter. Chandrayaan-3 successfully demonstrated India’s soft-landing capability, making India the first country to land near the lunar south pole. The study concludes that the Chandrayaan missions reflect a systematic learning process and establish India as a leading contributor to global lunar research.
Hingmire et al. (Fri,) studied this question.