What question did this study set out to answer?

To explore the developmental heterogeneity of smartphone use and its bidirectional links with various risk factors in early adolescence.

May 13, 2026

Problematic smartphone use in early adolescence: Developmental heterogeneity and bidirectional links with risk factors

Key Points

To explore the developmental heterogeneity of smartphone use and its bidirectional links with various risk factors in early adolescence.
Followed 9.57-year-old early adolescents annually for three years
Utilized growth mixture modelling to identify PSU trajectories
Examined associations with internal factors like depression, anxiety and external factors such as parental neglect and peer exclusion
Identified low-decreasing and high-increasing PSU trajectories
High-increasing group experienced more adverse environments
Smartphone use predicted mainly by external factors initially, shifting to personal and environmental factors later

Abstract

= 9.57 years; 48.5% female), followed annually for three years. Growth mixture modelling identified distinct PSU trajectories, and bidirectional associations with internal (e.g., shyness, depression, anxiety) and external factors (e.g., parental neglect, peer exclusion) were examined. Cross-lagged network analysis further assessed interval-specific variation in predictive associations. Two trajectories emerged: a low-decreasing group (intercept = 1.845, slope = -0.120) and a high-increasing group (intercept = 2.110, slope = 0.348). Early adolescents in the high-increasing group experienced more adverse environments and reported higher levels of risk factors. PSU was primarily predicted by external factors in early intervals, whereas both personal and environmental factors became influential in later intervals. These findings highlight the heterogeneous and dynamic nature of PSU and support early, targeted family-focused interventions.

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