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Two major conceptions of educational achievement are characterized: achievement as basic skills, and facts versus achievement as higher order skills and advanced knowledge. The impact of such conceptions on the topics pursued by researchers, the ways teachers think about their teaching, and the public's view of educational goals are noted. In addition, the author argues that present dominant conceptions are inadequate given the importance they have. More adequate conceptions need to (a) integrate divergent views of achievement, (b) carry clear instructional implications, and (c) focus on long-term goals of education
Nancy S. Cole (Sun,) studied this question.