Effectiveness of syringe exchange programs in reducing HIV risk behavior and HIV seroconversion among injecting drug users

Drug addiction is a major risk factor for HIV infection for an estimated 3.4–5.5 million injecting drug users (IDU) in more than 125 countries 1–3. In the USA, injecting drug use now accounts for nearly one-third of new AIDS cases 4 and for as many as three-quarters of annual incident HIV infections 5. Behaviors associated with drug use that are responsible for HIV transmission include shared use of injection equipment and other drug paraphernalia, and unprotected vaginal and anal intercourse with an injecting drug user. Interventions that can reduce the prevalence of these behaviors are therefore a critical component of comprehensive AIDS prevention policy. Approaches to HIV risk reduction among IDU include drug abuse treatment, HIV testing and counseling programs, street-based outreach conducted by peer educators, individual and group counseling, community-level interventions to change IDU norms concerning safer injection and safer sex, and syringe exchange programs to provide IDU with sterile injection equipment. Syringe exchanges have been established widely in some developing, and a majority of the developed countries, 3 including the USA, although a Congressional funding ban still prevents them from receiving US government support. Although evidence indicates that syringe exchange is effective in slowing the spread of HIV in IDU (see, for example 6–8) socially conservative American politicians have embraced contrary evidence from two Canadian cities 9,10 to assert that syringe exchanges are not only immoral because they encourage drug use, but may also actively spread HIV 2. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive, critical review of published evidence of the effectiveness of syringe exchange programs in reducing HIV risk behavior and HIV seroconversion among IDU. While five previous reviews have been published, four 5–8 are now seriously out of date, and a fifth 11 did not attempt a comprehensive critical review of the published literature. We have identified and will describe and discuss 42 studies published between 1989 and the end of 1999 that evaluated syringe exchange effectiveness. Identification of studies We systematically searched the published scientific literature in the English language using Medline (National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, USA) and PsychInfo (American Psychological Association, Washington DC, USA) data bases for the period 1989–1999 using the key words ‘needle exchange’ and ‘syringe exchange'. We then supplemented these searches by review of bibliographies in papers that came to our attention as well as inquiries among colleagues. We did not attempt to review unpublished reports, but we did examine published commentaries on research findings. Our searches did not uncover any published work on syringe exchange effectiveness in languages other than English. Almost all of the studies we found were conducted in the USA, Canada, the UK, or the Netherlands. We included all published studies of the effectiveness of syringe exchange programs (SEP) in reducing HIV risk behavior and HIV seroconversion, regardless of design. We also included the few studies we were able to find that examined effects of syringe exchange on hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) seroconversion, as hepatitis and HIV are transmitted in very similar ways and are, therefore, good biological markers for behaviors that place drug users at risk for HIV (they are also obviously important biological outcomes in their own right). The authors each independently reviewed each of the studies, and abstracted essential information concerning design, procedures, results, statistical controls, and study limitations. We then reconciled our ratings of the studies, arriving at a consensus description of each. We did not attempt a formal meta-analysis because outcome measures and/or data analysis differed markedly across studies. Criteria used in appraising the strengths and limitations of the studies included the adequacy of statistical controls, including adjustment for selection bias; the sensitivity of outcome measures used, statistical power, and where applicable, the meaningfulness of contrasts between users and non-users of SEP. In longitudinal studies, potential limitations include biases related to loss of respondents to follow-up, and in the case–control studies, failure to properly match cases and controls. In the case–control studies, recall bias is another potential limitation. Still another potential problem in longitudinal studies of syringe exchange is low baseline HIV seroprevalence and the related issue of restriction of person-time experience of incidence. Of the 42 studies reviewed, 23 were community studies in which the behavior and HIV status of users of SEP were compared with those of IDU not using SEP. Another 11 studies were conducted exclusively with SEP clients. Two studies were conducted with both community samples and with SEP clients. In addition, there were six studies that evaluated the ecological impact of SEP. The 42 studies used a variety of designs, including longitudinal or prospective cohort (10 studies), case–control (five studies), and multiple cross-sectional or observational (five studies and 16 studies, respectively). Five studies were based on evidence gathered at a single syringe exchange and used to model mathematically syringe exchange effectiveness. In describing the 42 studies, we group them first by study type (community study, syringe exchange study, ecological study), and second, within type by design (longitudinal/prospective, case–control, observational, modeling). The reader will note that several studies 9,12,13 used more than one design; for the sake of simplicity, we will discuss results obtained with each design separately. Community studies with longitudinal/prospective design Seven studies followed samples of IDU longitudinally, and compared HIV status and behavior of drug users who did versus those who did not use or attend syringe exchange (see Table 1). We will use the term ‘use’ and ‘attend’ interchangeably to mean that IDU themselves visited a syringe exchange for the purpose of exchanging.Table 1: Longitudinal/prospective cohort studies conducted with injecting drug user (IDU) community samples. In a study conducted in Montreal, Canada, Bruneau et al.9 followed a cohort of respondents for a mean of 21 months, finding any SEP use in the previous 6 months to be a risk factor for seroconversion adjusted odds ratio (OR), 1.7); the study differed from the majority of the studies described here in that IDU clients were predominantly cocaine users and had legal access to sterile syringes through pharmacies. In a recently presented abstract [15, however, Bruneau's team found no relationship between SEP use and HIV seroconversion, suggesting that the association may fade or be unstable over time. Des Jarlais et al.16 performed a meta-analysis of three studies of SEP clients, vaccine preparedness respondents, and respondents in high-risk National AIDS Demonstration and Research cities, all of which were conducted in the USA. Controlling for potential confounders identified in a previous study, the investigators found that not using SEP continuously to be risk factor for HIV seroconversion (adjusted OR, 3.5). By contrast, Hagan et al.17 in Seattle found no protective effect against HBV- and HCV-seroconversion of former, sporadic, or regular SEP use; their analysis adjusted for recent initiation of injection drug use and daily injection at baseline, both of which appeared to confound the effects of SEP use. In Portland, another West Coast US city, Oliver et al.14 followed peer outreach and SEP clients over 6 months; although there was risk reduction in both groups, SEP clients were more likely to stop reusing ‘works’ without cleaning them, and were also less likely to throw away syringes (instead of returning them to then SEP); the investigators, however, did not adjust for preexisting differences between the two groups. In Vancouver, Canada, Schechter et al.18 followed 694 treated and untreated IDU over 15 months, finding that HIV incidence was higher in frequent versus infrequent SEP attendees; however, when a lengthy list of potential confounders were controlled for, no relationship was observed between incidence and SEP use. Of added interest, the data showed that only 0.7% of the sample reported meeting new friends or other people there, suggesting that SEP use does not contribute to new sharing relationships. In New York City, Schoenbaum et al.19 followed 329 IDU in methadone treatment over a period of 8 years. Following the introduction of SEP, they found increasing behavioral differences between SEP users and non-users, with the SEP users significantly less likely to report sharing syringes 4 years following introduction of the SEP. Interestingly, data collected from these methadone clients before SEP was implemented showed that there was less sharing of injection equipment among methadone patients who would later become SEP clients, suggesting that some of the later differences may have been due to client self-selection. van Haastrect et al.20 also followed IDU over 8 years, examining predictors of mortality in HIV-positive and HIV-negative drug users in Amsterdam; participation in syringe exchange was not associated with a lower mortality rate. It is important to note that IDU in Amsterdam could legally purchase pharmacy syringes in addition to obtaining them from a syringe exchange. Community studies using multiple cross-sectional designs We identified four multiple cross-sectional studies (see Table 2). Bluthenthal et al.12 interviewed untreated IDU in six waves of interviews conducted over 3 years in the San Francisco Bay Area. With each successive wave, the proportion of respondents reporting using a SEP to exchange syringes and obtain supplies increased, and there were at the same time decreases in the proportion reporting sharing syringes and supplies. Broadhead et al.21 studied the impact of the closure of a Windham (USA) syringe exchange; rates of reusing of syringes increased from an average of 3.5 times monthly before or during closure to 7.7 times after; self-reported sharing of syringes also increased from 16% to 34%. Des Jarlais et al.22 in New York City used a design very similar to that of Blunthenthal et al., except that the cross-sectional surveys were conducted quarterly over 3 years. Quarterly level of use of syringe exchange use correlated -0.67 and -0.44, respectively, with the proportion of respondents reporting borrowing and lending of syringes. In the fourth study, conducted by Singer et al.23 in Hartford, successive decreases in reuse of syringes and supplies followed legalization of pharmacy sale of syringes, and later, the introduction of an SEP.Table 2: Multiple cross-sectional studies conducted with injecting drug user (IDU) community samples. Case control studies with community samples We identified four case–control studies which evaluated syringe exchange effectiveness (see Table 3). In a case–control study embedded in the longitudinal study already described, Bruneau et al.9 compared 88 HIV seroconverters with a matched sample of 320 seronegative IDU. Surprisingly, cases were more likely to use syringe exchange adjusted odds ratio (AOR), 4.2, when a host of other variables were controlled. As noted, this was a sample obtained in a where pharmacy sale of syringes is very was obtained by Hagan et in USA. cases and on and injection they found of SEP to be associated with a and increased respectively, of and In Vancouver, Canada, et conducted a case–control study to predictors of HIV association was found between use of SEP and HIV of the cases and of the used an SEP. It is also that syringes may be legally in in van et in Amsterdam found no protective effect related to the proportion of syringes at an in Amsterdam as in Vancouver, IDU can obtain syringes legally from studies conducted with injecting drug user (IDU) community samples. studies conducted with IDU community samples observational studies of IDU were the of which compared users and non-users of syringe exchange; several studies, however, compared IDU to their of SEP use (see Table studies conducted with injecting drug user (IDU) community samples. Bluthenthal et al.12 found a protective effect associated with SEP use, for identified Bruneau et obtained very results in Montreal, finding an of for respondents reporting recent use of the SEP. As noted, this was a study conducted with cocaine in a where syringes could be In where pharmacy purchase of syringes was also an et found users and non-users of SEP did not with to the to which they shared used injection equipment. The same was not of a sample studied by et in there, SEP were less likely than to used syringes, legal pharmacy sale of syringes. Two studies conducted by et in Amsterdam found In the first study, were less likely than to have syringes during both the previous and and the previous years and respectively). In the study, regular was not associated with increased or The study controlled for identified As noted, IDU in Amsterdam could legally purchase syringes in pharmacies. The same was of IDU in a study conducted by et in The investigators, however, found use of the SEP to be protective against borrowing of only and of reported borrowing in years, compared with and of The investigators did not control for et conducted several studies of SEP in the of In these studies, SEP use was not associated with used in use of SEP was associated with used syringes to In Vancouver, Canada, et found frequent than a of the SEP were more likely than to be HIV a variety of potential confounders was and the for HIV of SEP use was but a later study already to which was conducted in the same found that when confounders were controlled for, no relationship was observed between incidence and SEP use. In a study conducted by van et found between SEP use and borrowing and lending of these however, did not In a later study, also conducted in van and examined the impact of regular versus versus no use of an SEP, for a of use of the syringe exchange was associated with an risk compared with regular but non-users were at suggesting that non-users had other of syringes, through pharmacies. In San et found an protective effect of SEP use with to reported sharing during the previous Longitudinal/prospective cohort studies conducted with SEP clients studies followed SEP clients behavior reported at the clients to use syringe exchange with that at a (see Table Of the only et had a SEP who reported sharing at baseline had sharing by a follow-up, although who reported no sharing at baseline reported at no in sharing were observed in the In a study conducted by et in USA, the of SEP clients who reported borrowing and lending of syringes in the previous from and respectively, at baseline to and at In USA, Oliver et al.14 found that the proportion of clients who reported borrowing a syringe from at initiation of SEP use to at a 6 follow-up, and the proportion of clients who reported a syringe from to a similar et in USA, found a to in borrowing a used a to reduction in lending a used and in sharing of or or using a syringe to Longitudinal/prospective cohort studies conducted with syringe exchange (SEP) clients. studies conducted with SEP clients We four observational studies conducted with SEP clients (see Table In two studies from San Francisco et found that recent users of syringe exchange had sharing in the first study, of sharing was correlated with of exchange in the but was not correlated with of sharing In the study, a finding of of was only a but respondents who did not report sharing obtained a higher proportion of their syringes from SEP versus et in New York City, interviewed IDU concerning their behavior during the previous and the the initiation of SEP use. The proportion who reported borrowing used syringes from at initiation of SEP use to at follow-up, and or used syringe from to studies conducted with exchange (SEP) clients. Multiple cross-sectional study with SEP clients et syringe exchange over 4 years, but did not attempt to the to of study can be properly as multiple 4 years, the investigators found that the of times shared from to and the of people they shared with from two to one (see Table Multiple cross-sectional study conducted with exchange (SEP) clients. studies We identified five ecological studies of SEP effectiveness. Des Jarlais et described the of HIV in five cities among the five cities were of prevention when HIV was still of sterile injection and et found that syringe sharing of and drug there was also evidence that pharmacy sale of syringes increased following et found that increased by in cities without SEP, and by in cities with SEP. et found that seroprevalence of and was not significantly for IDU who injecting before versus of an SEP, differences in of et found a seroprevalence of in a in with an SEP, compared with to in other without that there is evidence that of syringe and of methadone and outreach programs an HIV from in all but a few studies and in New USA, conducted a of studies to model the effectiveness an SEP in reducing the time of syringes at the SEP. that with time from increased the HIV infection in syringes would also to be the 3 months of the syringe the time from to and the of syringes that were by from to also estimated the time before introduction of syringe exchange to be incidence among exchange clients was estimated first as new infections drug with a of and later as new infections drug users with a of In another study they the in proportion of to the SEP was not due to a in of clients Although the that these studies provide are they are to the same limitations of all studies, only an to the and that are shared among all not among of also the of exchange and the of as well as the of syringes of all syringes in the there is evidence that syringe exchange programs are effective in HIV risk behavior and HIV seroconversion among IDU. Of the 42 studies reviewed found effects associated with use of syringe two found and found no association or a of and The of the results differed to the research design in The or were in the studies conducted with IDU community which compared users with non-users of syringe exchange. were in studies, in and effects in By contrast, all of the studies conducted with SEP clients out of found five of the six ecological studies effects associated with use of syringe exchange. The five studies by and conducted with syringes as to clients, also evidence of syringe exchange effectiveness. The and are both and to by et for their own is that syringe exchange may not be to spread of HIV in IDU. The investigators studied they describe as the and syringe exchange in both in of the of syringes and the proportion of IDU access to sterile syringes, exchange clients behavior that themselves and at risk of and were more likely than to Of the seroconverters only two reported access to syringes, reported no with to While we that syringe exchange may not be to spread of HIV among we that selection and biases may have to the and reviewed selection in a study that IDU in San Francisco over time from before syringe exchange was et found a seroconversion of among who would use syringe compared with among those who did Schoenbaum et al.19 obtained similar findings. In their study, before of an SEP, IDU who would later use syringe exchange were more likely to report sharing syringes. Schechter et al.18 that selection bias could for the higher among frequent as to infrequent of SEP, and Hagan et found not only that new were at higher risk than but also that higher risk IDU were less likely to stop using an SEP over the of a and Bruneau to for a higher HIV seroconversion among exchange clients than in other studies have that cocaine users the of the sample in the study are more likely than users to in high-risk behavior and also obtained evidence that to these findings. found that cocaine users more more in the of and a syringe to with the use syringes that more and attend more and more in work and/or with also that users in have a more and are more likely than cocaine users to purchase syringes in during than attend the syringe exchange. In a recent published on and related to syringe exchange not only on access to pharmacy syringes may differences between users and non-users of syringe but also three studies suggesting that IDU who obtain their syringes from are more socially that those who attend syringe exchange; one study evidence of the to syringes or not based on the we that an factor the and was of other of syringes. this is were the contrasts between SEP clients and with access to other of syringes would not be very in could be an of where of IDU to obtain syringes. It is not a that the and were all from studies conducted in in those conducted in and the and the where IDU have access not only to syringe exchange but also to where they can purchase syringes legally at low Five of the studies however, found effects of syringe exchange in with pharmacy that access is not a study limitation. among the IDU community studies a of legal pharmacy access by of versus and of SEP effectiveness this relationship to be at would to the recent of that the Canadian and Seattle studies a in the that exchanges provide an to the problem of transmission among drug the pharmacy access the outcomes of these studies, that may not be It be noted, however, that may not syringes to people they to be drug users is legal to in Canada, the sale of syringes is to the of individual The that some SEP may higher risk IDU or that IDU may have access to other of syringes, however, at in not to of syringe exchange effectiveness. With longitudinal data differences between IDU who versus those who not to use syringe exchange selection could be controlled in the impact of syringe exchange In the of of syringe exchange have been an study would a prospective cohort and interviewed before of syringe that IDU who would later on to use an SEP could be in of risk from those behavioral data from a study would provide data for than was obtained in nearly all the studies reviewed of which used of for risk behavior than behavior other of syringes to IDU is also critical to properly the impact of SEP. one of the 42 studies reviewed here did It is likely that failure to obtain measures of the of these other and/or use them in data analysis to failure to find differences between IDU who did versus IDU who did not use syringe exchange. IDU obtain the syringes from who attend syringe exchange for them is obviously another factor which been and to be and in SEP effectiveness. In is several less with research on syringe exchange effectiveness. outcomes were used in only five studies, more less than self-reported which is to Interestingly, of the three studies using or seroconversion as one found a risk of seroconversion associated with use of SEP, the other found no the that and are transmitted more than and are more markers of infection IDU not syringes but drug and drug as and would be more to differences between users and non-users of an SEP of research on SEP to with adjustment for of (see and a to In not of the studies reviewed here observational, and case–control no attempt was to and control for confounders that for differences between IDU who did versus those who did not use syringe exchange. By we mean a review of literature on confounders identified in previous studies, and of these where they are in data In the of an of differences the could be due to or Still another problem was the of SEP use. We have that use of SEP was not in any of these studies. In addition, however, measures as SEP or more in the 6 were In our measures are not to the effects of SEP. In we that the of of SEP to be we are to to a of the impact of syringe exchange.