Abstract Experiences with the Coexistence model, which argues that large carnivores can live in territories shared with people, have been mostly positive in Europe. The relative success does not, however, come without significant challenges. These are related to social conflicts driven by the economic costs to local populations and related practical challenges, which are often linked to deeper divisions between individuals and groups with contrasting interests and value orientations. Coexistence is based on tolerance, which depends on several factors beyond costs and benefits, such as social trust, ability to control the risks and emotive reactions to wildlife, but also broader socio-political and economic factors beyond direct human-wildlife relations. On the basis of a case study of conservation conflict in Peneda-Gerês National Park in Portugal, the article seeks to identify the main reasons behind the observed problems of coexistence in the park, and what can be done to improve tolerance for wolves among local communities? The findings highlight three issues: (1) improve the compensation system for the victims of wolf predation by making it more prompt and upgrading the cause of death verification process; (2) provide substantial support also to other livelihoods than tourism, such as agropastoralism, which is crucial for maintaining the cultural landscape; and (3) improve communication and collaboration with the residents who actually live inside the park and are subject to its restrictions.
Pekka Virtanen (Fri,) studied this question.