Abstract : The transition from hierarchical automation toward fully distributed Distributed Control Systems (DCS) and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) creates a new class of engineering problems in which local intelligence, networked coordination and physical dynamics must operate under uncertainty. In these systems, control is no longer concentrated in a single supervisory unit. Instead, sensors, controllers, actuators, edge devices and cyber agents cooperate through local decisions and partial information. This article develops a stochastic framework for examining fully distributed DCS/CPS by linking three levels of analysis: how local states shift through Markov transitions, how short‑term decisions accumulate over time through the Chapman–Kolmogorov relation, and how uncertainty spreads in continuous processes through the Fokker–Planck equation. All these aspects indicate that a distributed system is something much more than a mere configuration of communication; it is an adaptive, stochastic controller organism, where its global functioning arises from many small local decisions that modify probabilities and paths. The design should then consider how these local decisions affect one another over time, rather than simply interconnecting devices. The proposed framework is then analyzed from the perspectives of stability, resilience, communication delay, cyber-security, scalability, energy efficiency and digital-twin-based prediction. The result is a theoretical foundation suitable for smart factories, smart grids, intelligent buildings, autonomous transport systems and future smart urban infrastructures. The added interpretative value of the framework is that each equation is treated not only as a formal mathematical relation, but also as a design logic. Markov probabilities are interpreted as local operational tendencies, Chapman-Kolmogorov composition as the logic of accumulated distributed decisions, and Fokker-Planck dynamics as the evolution of confidence, risk and uncertainty in the whole cyber-physical network.
Ass. Eng. Iliyan Vasilev,, PhD (Mon,) studied this question.