Differences in Cultural Frame of Reference

There are at least two prerequisites for understanding the academic performance of minorities in contemporary urban industrial societies. The first is to distinguish among different types of minority status; the second is to distinguish different types of cultural difference. The distinctions between voluntary and involuntary minorities and between primary and secondary cultural differences are used as explanatory concepts. Voluntary minorities do not have persistent basic academic difficulties, no matter what their primary cultural differences from the dominant majority. The people who have the most difficulty with academic achievement are involuntary minorities. These difficulties stem from the responses that involuntary minorities have made to their forced incorporation and subsequent treatment, especially their formation of oppositional identity and oppositional cultural frame of reference. Such responses constitute secondary cultural differences. Unlike primary cultural differences, secondary cultural differences do not predate contact between the minority and the majority groups; rather, they are responses to the difficult nature of the contact.