Leadership and the Glass Ceiling: Gender and Ethnic Group Influences on Leader Behaviors at Middle and Executive Managerial Levels

This study investigated influences of gender and ethnic group through the perspective of four leader behaviors deemed important by top managers and exhibited by 658 middle managers and executives in a large professional services business organization. As rated by subordinates, female and male executives were similar in that they generally engaged in greater amounts of the leader behaviors valued by top management than did male and female middle manager. However, both female middle managers and female executives were rated higher than males counterparts not only interpersonal, but also goals and task leader behaviors. Results support socialization and gender norms explanations. Few ethnic group differences were found, but areas for future research are identified.