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Abstract In this essay, I critically examine the place of oral tradition in the narrative of jazz history, as well as how and why assumptions about its development persist in the music's discourse. Specifically, I argue that the continued identification with oral tradition imparts to the jazz community a unique identity vis‐à‐vis other forms of Western music, which are often described as "written" traditions. Through a critical re‐reading of historical and contemporary texts, as well as from interviews with jazz musicians, I illustrate how certain musicians and critics position jazz as a cultural and musical system that departs significantly from the practices of the Western art music tradition, chiefly in relation to the latter's employment of written scores. Such an oppositional discourse positions jazz not only as a distinct stylistic entity, but indeed as a unique music culture in relation to Western forms, invoking binary oppositions such as "African/European" or "black/white" in laying claim to cultural authenticity. Finally, I propose that neither "oral" nor "written" can adequately describe the complex processes that have given jazz its unique character in both performance and pedagogy, and that reflect its history of assimilating and transforming myriad musical and cultural practices. Notes 1. Major centers of research such as the Institute of Jazz Studies at Rutgers and the Hogan Jazz Archive in New Orleans often feature extensive collections of recorded "oral histories. " 2. I do not wish to imply that a questioning of orality in jazz improvisation means that jazz musicians necessarily include or incorporate non‐aural media (i. e. scores) in improvisational performance. While jazz musicians sometimes do refer to "lead sheets" while they play (although this practice itself is not without critics), improvisational performance is rarely done with reference to a pre‐written solo. The focus of this study is on the presumed centrality of oral tradition in acquiring improvisational skills, more than their actual performance application. See Johnson Johnson, Bruce. 1993. "Hear Me Talkin' to Ya': Problems of Jazz Discourse. ". Popular Music, 12 (1): 1–12. Google Scholar (2). 3. By "pedagogy" I refer to any and all processes of learning, both inside and outside the context of academic study. Some researchers have, in recent years, begun to re‐examine critically both traditional forms of jazz pedagogy, as well as their institutional counterparts. For a more in‐depth treatment of pedagogical issues and processes in jazz, see Ake Ake, David. 2002. Jazz Cultures, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Crossref, Google Scholar, Barr Barr, Walter. 1975. "The Jazz Studies Curriculum" Ed. D. diss. Arizona State University, 1974". Ann Arbor: UMI. DAI‐A 35/07, 4219 Google Scholar, Berliner Berliner, Paul. 1994. Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation, Chicago: U of Chicago P. Crossref, Google Scholar, Fraser Fraser, Wilmot. 1984. "Jazzology: A Study of the Tradition in which Jazz Musicians Learn to Improvise. " Ph. D. diss. U of Pennsylvania, 1983". Ann Arbor: UMI. DAI‐A 44/12. 3768 Google Scholar, and Javors Javors, Keith. 2001. "An Appraisal of Collegiate Jazz Performance Programs in the Teaching of Jazz Music. ". Ann Arbor: UMI, 2001, DAI‐A 62/06, 2063. D. M. E. diss. U of Illinois Google Scholar, as well as my own research on this topic (Prouty, "Canons, " Prouty Kenneth E. 2004. "Canons in Harmony or Canons in Conflict: A Cultural Perspective on the Curriculum and Pedagogy of Jazz Improvisation. " Research Issues in Music Education. 2. ⟨ www. rimeonline. org ⟩ (accessed 2 Aug 2005) Google Scholar "History, " Prouty, Kenneth E. 2005. "The History of Jazz Education: A Critical Reassessment. ". Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, 2 (2): 79–100. Google Scholar "Storyville" Prouty, Kenneth E. "From Storyville to State University: The Intersection of Academic and Non‐Academic Learning Cultures in Post‐Secondary Jazz Education. " Ph. D. diss. U of Pittsburgh. ". Ann Arbor: UMI, 2003, DAI‐A 64/01, 92. Google Scholar). 4. A number of musicians and scholars have interrogated this identity of jazz with African music cultures. Art Blakey, in particular, was adamant in his opposition to the idea the jazz was "African, " yet at the same time, he was an avowed student of African culture and African musical ideas, which he frequently incorporated into his music (Monson Monson, Ingrid. 2000. "Art Blakey's African Diaspora. ". In The African Diaspora: A Musical Perspective, Edited by: Monson, Ingrid. 329–52. New York: Garland. Google Scholar, "Art Blakey's"). 5. Consider the following passage from Christopher Small Small, Christopher. 1977. Music, Society, Education, New York: Schirmer Books. Google Scholar: "Jazz…is in its origins and its history much closer to white music and white society. As Gunther Schuller, points out, the legend of the illiterate jazz musician in New Orleans in the early years of the century is not in general substantiated by the statements of musicians who were around at the time" (Music 140). I find Small's linking of "white music and white society" to the dearth of "illiterate" musicians in early jazz to be troubling, as if to imply that without the connection to "white music, " jazz musicians read: black musicians would have been illiterate. 6. Sidran's Sidran, Ben. 1971. Black Talk: How the Music of Black America Created a Radical Alternative to the Values of Western Literary Tradition, New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston. Google Scholar comments would seem to imply an inherent distinction between orality, which he clearly does not regard as a medium, and other forms of communication. In the most general sense, however, spoken language is certainly a medium, making distinctions between oral, literate, and recorded communications even more problematic. 7. McLuhan's McLuhan, Marshall. 1964. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, New York: McGraw Hill. Google Scholar oft‐quoted statement was "the medium is the message" (7). 8. Sidran Sidran, Ben. 1971. Black Talk: How the Music of Black America Created a Radical Alternative to the Values of Western Literary Tradition, New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston. Google Scholar, to be fair, does acknowledge that early jazz musicians did develop a sense of structural understanding, but that was derived through improvisational performance rather than from outside of that experience. See Sidran Sidran, Ben. 1971. Black Talk: How the Music of Black America Created a Radical Alternative to the Values of Western Literary Tradition, New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston. Google Scholar (61). This highlights an underlying tension between theory and practice that is present in many musical learning contexts, particularly within the academic institution (and is not limited to the study of jazz). 9. While Martin's Martin, Henry. 1996. "Jazz Theory: An Overview. ". Annual Review of Jazz Studies, 8: 1–17. Google Scholar description of the process is largely correct, I question the assertion the musicians were not aware of these musical structures. I would posit that they were aware of them, but simply articulated such concepts in ways that are different from what Martin Martin, Henry. 1996. "Jazz Theory: An Overview. ". Annual Review of Jazz Studies, 8: 1–17. Google Scholar terms (in the same article) "analytical" theory. Many musicians developed their own theoretical constructs for understanding and even analyzing music. See Berliner Berliner, Paul. 1994. Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation, Chicago: U of Chicago P. Crossref, Google Scholar for a more thorough investigation of this theme. 10. Today, most academic jazz education programs give scant attention to the performance of early forms of jazz. When questioned on this point, one educator remarked to me that such a pursuit was "pointless, " as earlier forms did not require the same types of skills and training. As a performing jazz musician myself, this is an assertion that I would call into question. 11. Certainly not in Galper's Galper Hal. "The Oral Tradition. " http: //www. halgalper. com/13ₐrti/oraltradition. htm (accessed 25 July 2005) Google Scholar case, who views the perceived avoidance of more intellectualized systems of jazz pedagogy as an advantage. 12. I would suggest that the emphasis on literacy displayed by many contemporary jazz educators with regard to modern forms of jazz may reflect a desire to place jazz on an equivalent cultural footing with the Western art tradition within the academy. Academic musical instruction, like the Western classical tradition, is often regarded as a predominantly written musical tradition, and notation exerts a powerful hegemonic influence on musical discourses in higher education. See Kingsbury Kingsbury, Henry. 1988. Music, Talent and Performance: A Conservatory Cultural System, Philadelphia: Temple UP. Google Scholar, also Nettl Nettl, Bruno. 1995. Heartland Excursions: Ethnomusicological Reflections on Schools of Music, Urbana and Chicago, IL: U of Illinois P. Google Scholar (Heartland 36–37). 13. During jazz education's formative days, ironically, the situation was often exactly the opposite. Proponents of jazz went to great lengths to demonstrate the music's similarities with the Western art music tradition, presumably in an effort to show that it was worthy of academic study. For example, Walter Barr Barr, Walter. 1975. "The Jazz Studies Curriculum" Ed. D. diss. Arizona State University, 1974". Ann Arbor: UMI. DAI‐A 35/07, 4219 Google Scholar quotes musician and educator Billy Taylor, who goes to great lengths to point to structural similarities between the Western art music tradition and jazz (Barr Barr, Walter. 1975. "The Jazz Studies Curriculum" Ed. D. diss. Arizona State University, 1974". Ann Arbor: UMI. DAI‐A 35/07, 4219 Google Scholar 28). 14. The terms "changes" and "chord changes" are commonly used by jazz performers to indicate the underlying harmonic progression of a particular song. 15. In my experience as a student in jazz education programs, "ear" playing could be both a blessing and a curse. While such students were often admired for their abilities, they sometimes experienced more difficulty in negotiating instruction in theory and analysis, as well as improvisational pedagogy. Of course, the point behind such programs was to create well‐rounded musicians who could function in either context, but these were often difficult for students more used to playing without reference to written musical materials. 16. Many jazz musicians have spoken about wearing out copies of their favorite records as a result of repeated listening while trying to learn solos. 17. See Berliner Berliner, Paul. 1994. Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation, Chicago: U of Chicago P. Crossref, Google Scholar (93–105) for a wealth of further information on this topic. 18. Aebersold's Aebersold, Jamey. 1973. A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation, New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold Jazz. Google Scholar first instructional volume was published in 1973. To date, he has produced over 100 volumes of instructional sets, encompassing a vast repertory of compositions and jazz styles. 19. Aebersold's Aebersold, Jamey. 1973. A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation, New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold Jazz. Google Scholar edition of Benny Golson's music is one example, with Golson providing the count himself. 20. Many colleagues agree that a number of Aebersold Aebersold, Jamey. 1973. A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation, New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold Jazz. Google Scholar recordings, particularly those at faster tempos, do in fact rush the tempo to a slight degree during a track. The consensus among informants in my research seems that this is intentional, perhaps to provide a more intense workout. 21. I have also noticed as a performer that, in recent years, the books that accompany Aebersold's Aebersold, Jamey. 1973. A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation, New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold Jazz. Google Scholar recordings have increasingly begun to replace "fake books" as the lead sheets of choice for many jazz performers. 22. Again, this grants Sidran's Sidran, Ben. 1971. Black Talk: How the Music of Black America Created a Radical Alternative to the Values of Western Literary Tradition, New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston. Google Scholar (3) assertion that oral communication is fundamentally unmediated. 23. Consider Miles Davis's Davis, Miles and Troupe, Quincy. 1990. Miles: The Autobiography, New York: Simon & Schuster. Google Scholar opinions on written materials: "What we did on Bitches Brew you couldn't ever write down for an orchestra to play. That's why I didn't write it all out, not because I didn't know what I wanted, I knew what I wanted would come out of a process and not some pre‐arranged shit" (Davis and Troupe Davis, Miles and Troupe, Quincy. 1990. Miles: The Autobiography, New York: Simon & Schuster. Google Scholar 290). 24. I qualify this term because the determination of a composer's intent is nearly always speculative, save when the composer has made his or her intent explicit (a relative rarity in musicological research). 25. I would call attention to the use of the word "aural" as opposed to "oral" in this context. See Fraser Fraser, Wilmot. 1984. "Jazzology: A Study of the Tradition in which Jazz Musicians Learn to Improvise. " Ph. D. diss. U of Pennsylvania, 1983". Ann Arbor: UMI. DAI‐A 44/12. 3768 Google Scholar (103–04). 26. While Gillespie Gillespie, Luke O. 1991. "Literacy, Orality, and the Parry‐Lord 'Formula': Improvisation and the Afro‐American Jazz Tradition. ". International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 22 (2): 147–64. Google Scholar (160) is careful to point out the inherent problems of classifying jazz as an exclusively oral tradition, he does not address the essential difference in learning between jazz and the epic poetry of which Lord Lord, Albert. 1965. The Singer of Tales, New York: Atheneum. Google Scholar writes: the central place of audio recordings. I have argued elsewhere in this essay that the use of recorded media presents a profoundly different set of pedagogical concerns for those studying the role of orality in jazz. Neither does Gillespie Gillespie, Luke O. 1991. "Literacy, Orality, and the Parry‐Lord 'Formula': Improvisation and the Afro‐American Jazz Tradition. ". International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 22 (2): 147–64. Google Scholar fully address the employment of orality as identity, as I have argued in this paper, presumably more concerned with the specific workings of formula within an oral‐literate system of learning. Nevertheless, we share much common ground in terms of the critique of orality as an absolute identifier of musical process and culture.
Kenneth E. Prouty (Tue,) studied this question.