Abstract Hyper-realistic robot heads represent a significant advancement in humanoid robotics, offering new possibilities for natural human-robot interaction in healthcare, education, and social assistance. This review examines the evolution, design principles, and implementation challenges of highly anthropomorphic robot heads, complementing existing engineering surveys with psychological foundations, quantitative analysis of implementation trends across two decades, and systematic coverage of evaluation methodologies. The historical development traces from early prototypes to current state-of-the-art systems, including commercially available platforms. The mechanical design of realistic robot faces requires careful integration of numerous facial components, each presenting unique engineering challenges. Actuator technologies ranging from servo motors to pneumatic systems enable the complex movements necessary for facial expressions. Implementation of facial expressions relies on established emotion theories that map facial muscle movements to specific emotions through standardized coding systems. Beyond basic categorical emotions, more complex emotional states and their expressions are also addressed. The review examines how different facial features contribute to human-likeness and factors affecting expression recognition. Persistent challenges are addressed including the uncanny valley effect, achieving natural movement dynamics, and balancing mechanical complexity with practical functionality, as well as ethical and cultural considerations in social robotics. Current applications in research platforms, therapeutic settings, educational environments, and social assistance are highlighted, while considering future directions for this rapidly evolving field.
Itatani et al. (Thu,) studied this question.
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