In conclusion, GM-CSF effectively mitigates glutamate-induced toxicity in C6 glioma cells by counteracting oxidative stress, preserving genomic integrity, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine release, inhibiting apoptosis, maintaining mitochondrial function, stabilizing energy metabolism, and modulating autophagy. These findings highlight the extensive protective mechanism of GM-CSF and support its potential as a therapeutic candidate for attenuating excitotoxic damage.
Motafeghi et al. (Sun,) studied this question.