Persistence, toxicity, and risk assessment of toxic compounds in food: implications for food safety and public health

The contamination of food by toxic chemical compounds is a significant global concern that threatens food safety and public health. These compounds originate from diverse sources, including naturally occurring toxins such as mycotoxins and plant alkaloids, environmental pollutants including heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants, substances formed during food processing and packaging such as acrylamide and bisphenol A, and newly emerging contaminants such as microplastics and nanoplastics. This review presents a comprehensive classification of toxic compounds in the food system, detailing their sources, persistence, and behavior within the environment. The objective of this study is to explore the toxicity, toxicokinetics, and toxicodynamics of foodborne contaminants by examining their absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and mechanisms of biotransformation. The review also discusses how these toxicants interact with cellular and molecular targets, leading to adverse effects on various organs and biological systems. Furthermore, the manuscript highlights both conventional detection methods such as immunoassays, chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques, biochemical and microbiological assay, and recent innovations, including nanotechnology-based biosensors and computational tools driven by artificial intelligence. A novel contribution of this review is the inclusion of standardized chemical identifiers such as systematic names by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, the International Chemical Identifier, the Simplified Molecular Input Line Entry Specification, and the Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number used in food-risk component databases. Additionally, the application of the One Health approach offers an integrated perspective on human, animal, and environmental health. This review identifies research gaps and promotes enhanced monitoring, regulation, and management strategies to ensure sustainable food safety.