“Suppressing Speaking Officials?”—The Reform of the Avenues of Criticism and their Operation During Zhang Juzheng Dominated-Period in the Ming China (1573–1582)

Many late Ming scholars accused Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng (1525–1582) of "suppressing speaking officials." This article argues that under Zhang's administration in the early Wanli period, the operation of the avenues of criticism, through which speaking officials admonished and supervised those in power, improved significantly compared to the Longqing period and the post-Zhang era. This article clarifies the exaggerated nature of the accusations and analyzes the reasons behind the accusations, revealing two main insights. First, studies of late Ming political history should move beyond the literati's perspective and consider the viewpoints of other political participants. Second, power that operated above the avenues of criticism had complex effects on their functioning. Zhang acted in multiple roles in relation to the avenues of criticism — as a regulator, mediator, protector, and disruptor. These insights contribute to a reassessment of political discourse and power dynamics within the imperial court in late Ming China.