The Pole and The Tree: Zitkála-šá's "Consciousness" and the New Thought

Abstract: This article traces a strand of determined positive thinking in the work of Zitkála-Šá, a Yankton Sioux author, to late-nineteenth century metaphysical religious currents called the New Thought. I show how Zitkála-Šá's theories of "consciousness" resemble the work of contemporaneous pragmatic philosophy, but speak specifically to the concerns of Native peoples, exhibiting what Gerald Vizenor called "survivance." Furthermore, I connect this vision of Native life to her environmental imagery by showing how Zitkála-Šá's sylvan symbols (the tree and the pole) allow her to illustrate how Natives might concurrently embrace "consciousness" and traditional ways.