Which diversification trajectories make coffee farming more sustainable?

Annual global coffee consumption growth (1–2%) has been largely met (>50%) mainly by Brazil and Vietnam through high-input monocrop system adoption. Smallholders account for >80% of global producers and >60% of global supply despite limited farm sizes (<2 ha), yields, and input usage. Production concentration in areas with high-yielding systems has fulfilled global demand growth while keeping coffee prices low. However, climate shocks demonstrate the vulnerability of all supply models, strengthening the voice of those advocating more resilient and diversified systems. We review current agroforestry knowledge to identify key trade-offs and synergies between sustainability/performance indicators (i.e. economic, environmental, and social) and explore pathways for a more sustainable coffee future with three examples representative of global coffee production system diversity.