Solving the trophic puzzle: Host–parasite associations in Neotropical fig wasps associated with fig trees of section Americanae

Abstract Understanding trophic networks is fundamental for elucidating the structure, functioning and evolutionary dynamics of ecological communities. The interaction involving Ficus (Moraceae) and fig wasps (Chalcidoidea) represents a valuable model system for investigating complex trophic interactions due to its high species diversity and ecological specialization. Here, we aimed to determine the trophic associations among fig wasps inhabiting Ficus citrifolia (section Americanae ) by integrating gall morphology, the temporal sequence of wasp colonization and oviposition behaviour. We dissected galls produced by four gall‐inducing species at a late developmental phase, enabling direct identification of occupants and inference of host–parasite associations. Morphometric analyses (mesosoma length, body mass and gall dimensions) and oviposition windows further corroborated these associations. Our results resolved the trophic relationships of 11 fig wasp species, spanning nearly all genera known from the Americanae section, except Anidarnes , which does not occur in the focal host. Importantly, we distinguished kleptoparasites from parasitoids, a challenging task in fig wasp systems, and documented an indirect hyperparasitism involving Physothorax and Sycophila . Our integrative approach provides a robust framework for unravelling trophic interactions in fig wasp communities. It holds promise for application to other fig lineages, enhancing our understanding of the ecology and evolutionary biology of this intricate insect‐plant system.