The dawn of gravitational wave astronomy at light-year wavelengths: insights from pulsar timing arrays

Abstract Arrays of precisely-timed millisecond pulsars are used to search for gravitational waves with periods of months to decades. Gravitational waves affect the path of radio pulses propagating from a pulsar to Earth, causing the arrival times of those pulses to deviate from expectations based on the physical characteristics of the pulsar system. By correlating these timing residuals in a pulsar timing array (PTA), one can search for a statistically isotropic background of gravitational waves by revealing evidence for a distinctive pattern predicted by General Relativity, known as the Hellings & Downs curve. On June 29 2023, five regional PTA collaborations announced the first evidence for GWs at light-year wavelengths, predicated on support for this correlation pattern with statistical significances ranging from \!2-4 ∼ 2 − 4 σ. The amplitude and shape of the recovered GW spectrum has also allowed many investigations of the expected source characteristics, ranging from a cosmic population of supermassive binary black holes to numerous processes in the early Universe. In the future, we expect to resolve signals from individual binary systems of supermassive black holes, and probe fundamental assumptions about the background, including its polarization, anisotropy, Gaussianity, and stationarity, all of which will aid efforts to discriminate its origin. In tandem with new facilities like DSA-2000 and the SKA, fueling further observations by regional PTAs and the International Pulsar Timing Array, PTAs have extraordinary potential to be engines of nanohertz GW discovery.