Despite its acknowledged pedagogical value, formative assessment (FA) remains underutilized in physical education (PE). Understanding the factors that support or hinder FA implementation – such as teachers' positive attitudes, knowledge, and self-efficacy in applying both traditional and digital FA – is therefore essential for informing PE teacher education programs. This study investigates German pre-service PE teachers’ ( N = 208) attitudes, knowledge, and self-efficacy regarding FA, and their predictive value for intended use of traditional and digital FA. Results revealed favourable attitudes, knowledge, and technological self-efficacy, whereas FA-related self-efficacy remained low. Attitude and technological self-efficacy emerged as the strongest predictors of usage intention. The findings highlight the need for PE teacher education reforms that systematically embed FA, with a focus on diagnostic competence, practice-based learning opportunities, and a mindset shift toward formative, technology-integrated teaching practices. • Self-efficacy for formative assessment is low in surveyed pre-service physical education teachers. • Self-efficacy for teaching with technology predicts intention to use digital formative assessment. • Positive attitude predicts intention to use traditional and digital formative assessment. • Initial teacher education should prioritize formative assessment competence development.
Müller et al. (Thu,) studied this question.