Sustainable E-waste management: Global challenges, recovery techniques, and regulatory approaches

The excessive growth of electronic waste (E-waste) has become a pressing global challenge, intensifying environmental pollution and resource depletion. Traditional recovery methods, such as hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy, facilitate metal extraction but are often hindered by high energy consumption, hazardous emissions, and process inefficiencies. In response, recent advancements have focused on the expansion of eco-friendly and sustainable extraction methods, including the use of green solvents, non-cyanide lixiviants, and hybrid techniques that integrate physical, chemical, and biological methods. This review provides a comprehensive and integrative assessment of emerging approaches for sustainable E-waste valorisation, highlighting their coherence in improving metal recovery and reducing environmental impact. Unlike existing reviews, it bridges process-level innovations with policy and circular economy perspectives, offering a complete framework that connects technological efficiency with environmental governance. By focusing on bio-based and green extraction technologies, this study highlights the potential for low-impact, high-efficiency metal recovery and outlines pathways for scalable and inclusive E-waste management systems that support a sustainable future. • Green solvents provide a sustainable method for extracting metals from E-waste. • Bacteria, archaea and eukarya recover metals by producing metal-dissolving compounds. • PCBs are a rich source of rare and valuable metals.