Neuronavigation maximizes accuracy and precision in TMS positioning: Evidence from 11,230 distance, angle, and electric field modeling measurements

Cap-based targeting is an inherent source of target variability compared to neuronavigation. Additionally, cap-based coil placement is more prone to differences across operators. Off-target coil placement secondary to cap-based measurements results in significantly lower amounts of stimulation reaching the cortical target, with some individuals receiving only 48.6% of the intended on-target E-field. Neuronavigation technology enables more precise and accurate TMS positioning, resulting in the intended stimulation intensities at the targeted cortical level.