Beyond the manual: Doctrine’s role in military transformation reconsidered

Abstract Military doctrine can function as a tool of change by articulating a vision of the future force. However, how and under which conditions this occurs is contested. This study is structured as a theory-testing process-tracing case study on the use of doctrine by the Royal Norwegian Air Force 1999–2011. Following its perceived irrelevance during Operation Allied Force in 1999, the Norwegian Air Force shifted from a defensive to an offensive posture, culminating in extensive bombings during Operation Unified Protector in 2011. However, Norway did not use doctrine as a tool of change, despite having all the theorised preconditions for doing so. This was due to a tradition of writing descriptive, rather than prescriptive doctrine. Yet, while not having direct effect, doctrine served as a platform for internal debate, influencing changes in force employment, organisation, and equipment indirectly. These findings challenge conventional assumptions about doctrine as a driver of military change, highlighting its indirect role in shaping military discourse and institutional adaptation. The study contributes to the study of international security by demonstrating that the direct impact of doctrine on military transformation is contingent on doctrinal traditions.