Second‐Generation Objects in the Universe: Radiative Cooling and Collapse of Halos with Virial Temperatures above 104K

The first generation of protogalaxies likely formed out of primordial gas via H2-cooling in cosmological minihalos with virial temperatures of a few 1000K. However, their abundance is likely to have been severely limited by feedback processes which suppressed H2 formation. The formation of the protogalaxies responsible for reionization and metal-enrichment of the intergalactic medium, then had to await the collapse of larger halos. Here we investigate the radiative cooling and collapse of gas in halos with virial temperatures Tvir > 10⁴K. In these halos, efficient atomic line radiation allows rapid cooling of the gas to 8000 K; subsequently the gas can contract nearly isothermally at this temperature. Without an additional coolant, the gas would likely settle into a locally gravitationally stable disk; only disks with unusually low spin would be unstable. However, we find that the initial atomic line cooling leaves a large, out-of-equilibrium residual free electron fraction. This allows the molecular fraction to build up to a universal value of about x (H2) = 10^-3, almost independently of initial density and temperature. We show that this is a non--equilibrium freezeout value that can be understood in terms of timescale arguments. Furthermore, unlike in less massive halos, H2 formation is largely impervious to feedback from external UV fields, due to the high initial densities achieved by atomic cooling. The H2 molecules cool the gas further to about 100K, and allow the gas to fragment on scales of a few 100 Msun. We investigate the importance of various feedback effects such as H2-photodissociation from internal UV fields and radiation pressure due to Ly-alpha photon trapping, which are likely to regulate the efficiency of star formation.