Land use Changes in a European Transboundary River Basin Between 1990–2018: A Remote Sensing Approach

The main aim of this study is to investigate the sustainability of changes in land-use and land-cover in the area, assuming that the Hungarian and Slovak regions constitute a single unit. To achieve this aim, this study analyzes the spatial and temporal distribution of CORINE Land Cover classes in the Ipel’/Ipoly basin between 1990 and 2018, identifies the main driving forces behind these changes, and evaluates whether they can be considered positive or negative in terms of sustainability. The analysis was carried out using QGIS (Quantum Geographic Information System), Google Earth Pro, Sentinel Hub, and Earth Explorer. We examined changes in area proportions in the context of sustainability and climate protection, with particular attention to determining the size of non-irrigated arable land areas, which are crucial due to the increasing frequency of drought years, and to changes in the proportions of vineyards, pastures, and fruit tree plantations. Irrigated land accounted for 3% of agricultural areas (5% of irrigable land) in the early 2000s, but expanded strongly due to subsidies and irrigation projects. Complex cultivation patterns halved between 1990 and 2018, from over 6000 ha, while small farms exceeded one million after EU accession and CAP implementation. During the evaluation of the satellite images, we also calculated and analyzed the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) within the catchment area, providing a remote-sensing-based visual follow-up of changes in land-use categories. While the analysis of land-use and land-cover changes is based on CORINE data for the period 1990–2018, more recent conditions were explored using satellite-derived indices. NDVI and NDWI were used as supplementary indicators to assess vegetation and water-related changes, but the primary classification of land-use and land-cover relied on CORINE datasets. Since CORINE data for 2024 are not available at the moment of writing of our paper, NDVI and NDWI values derived from 2024 satellite imagery were included as a complementary assessment to provide preliminary insights into recent changes. This approach allows for the identification of emerging trends beyond the CORINE reference period, while maintaining consistency in the core land-use analysis. The mean NDVI increased from 0,2 in 1990 to 0,5 in 2024, indicating a substantial rise in vegetation density. The seasonal contrasts between NDVI and NDWI are more pronounced in 2024, reflecting advances in satellite sensor technology. The results underscore the importance of continuous monitoring of land-use and vegetation dynamics to support sustainable management and informed policy-making in the Ipel’/Ipoly basin. Land use and land cover changes in the Ipel’/Ipoly Basin transboundary watershed were analyzed between 1990 and 2018 using CORINE Land Cover data and satellite imagery in a GIS environment. Changes in major land cover categories were evaluated with a focus on agricultural land, non-irrigated arable areas, vineyards, pastures, and fruit plantations. While global deforestation has intensified since 1990, largely driven by agricultural expansion, forest and seminatural areas have increased in the EU due to environmental policies. Consistent with these trends, forest and seminatural surfaces have expanded in the Ipel’/Ipoly catchment following EU accession. NDVI and NDWI analyses support the assessment of vegetation dynamics and water availability, highlighting implications for agricultural sustainability, climate sensitivity, biodiversity, and environmental protection across the transboundary basin. The research methods we choose reflect this introduction, usingrelied on state-of-the-art remote sensing technology to explore a deeper relationship through periodic changes in vegetation. Our key findings reveal the major changes, in terms of impacts and applications, driven by the EU-scaled policy. A land-use transformation occurred between 1990 and 2018, resulting in forest expansion in the watershed we investigated. NDVI and NDWI analysis reveal spatial and temporal patterns of vegetation health and water availability as a tool to track land use changes, between 1990 and 2024. Sustainable land management is not only an environmental issue, but a key strategy for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Remote sensing data can serve as effective tools for monitoring ecosystem health and guiding climate-resilient land management strategies.