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Portable devices are powered in direct current (DC) or by batteries (primary battery), accumulators (secondary battery), and now supercapacitors, which can also be used for energy storage. The European Portable Battery Association states that approximately 239,000 tons of batteries were placed on the market in the European Economic Area (EEA) plus Switzerland in 2022. Even if they were all disposed of correctly respecting the 3R paradigm (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle), non-rechargeable batteries create an environmental problem because they do not discharge completely with an obvious waste of energy. Secondary batteries and supercapacitors can be recharged because they use reversible chemical/physical processes while primary batteries cannot be recharged because they are based on irreversible redox reactions; nevertheless, it is possible to try to recover their residual charge if this is higher than a threshold beyond which the reactions can be reversible. The most used batteries are alkaline zinc/manganese dioxide and they are non-rechargeable; an inappropriate recharge attempt can lead to serious harm to the operator and the environment. This paper describes a simple Arduino-based circuit and the protocol to measure and graph the residual charge of an alkaline battery in order to establish if it can be recharged. The circuit, design, the Arduino Uno R3 sketch (i.e., microprocessor software) and the full protocol are here presented under the open source license (Copyright Creative Commons Public license, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 EN) so that they could become a pilot system and then a commercial product. The residual charge of 158 batteries, obtained after discharging those that, by eye, appeared damaged, was measured. Results evidenced that 49% of batteries had a residual voltage, under low load, between 1.2 and 1.6 V, making them good candidates for a recharge attempt.
Visco et al. (Sun,) studied this question.