Sectarianism in Football’s Digital Age: Digital Discourse, Player Identity, and Monarchical Symbolism in Scotland’s ‘Old Firm’ Rivalry

This thesis argues that sectarianism expressed through the rivalry between Glasgow football clubs Celtic and Rangers has been reconstituted through digital fan forums, where online interactions among supporters reproduce and extend traditional sectarian identities and antagonisms into new virtual spaces. The research examines two online fan forums called Celtic’s Kerrydale Street and Rangers’ Follow Follow. These communities are observed as virtual arenas where sectarian discourse is expressed. The study uses an online ethnography approach and combines qualitative observation with constructivism across forum discussions. The method allowed close examination of fan generated content across two football-related incidents (James McLean, Kyle Lafferty and Celtic vs Rangers) and one socio-cultural event (The Death of Queen Elizabeth II). Findings show that sectarian identities and antagonisms remain active in online spaces. The research found that both Celtic and Rangers forums act as virtual terraces where loyalty to the in-group and hostility toward the out-group is reinforced. Online fans use historical references through humour and coded language to strength boundaries and avoids moderation. This creates echo chambers where sectarian discourse becomes part of the routine of fan culture. The thesis examines how contemporary digital environments extend sectarian behaviour beyond match day and into social spaces. The thesis does this by making three contributions. First, it argues that sectarianism remains a living cultural phenomenon reworked through online spaces. Second, it advances the research of football fandom by critiquing how digital spaces express identity through imagined communities. Third, it provides analysis that can inform action to tackle discrimination and conflict online. Overall, the study helps develop an understanding of sectarian behaviour amongst football fans in the digital age.