Integrated drought assessment in Morocco: a combined approach using meteorological, hydrological, and remote sensing observations (1975–2023)

Abstract Drought is an increasing concern in Morocco’s semi-arid regions, where water resources are under growing pressure from climate variability and land degradation. Most previous studies on drought monitoring in Morocco have examined meteorological or hydrological dimensions separately, overlooking vegetation dynamics. This fragmented approach limits the ability to capture the full spectrum of drought impacts across natural and managed ecosystems. This study assesses drought dynamics in the Ahmed El Hansali Dam basin, located in the Upper Oum Er-Rbia watershed, during 1975–2023. The novelty of this research lies in the long-term, combined assessment of meteorological, hydrological, and remote sensing indices at the basin scale, providing one of the most comprehensive drought evaluations for Morocco’s inland watersheds. A multi-index approach combining Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), Streamflow Drought Index (SDI), and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was applied to assess meteorological, hydrological, and vegetation responses to drought. Meteorological data from five stations, hydrological inflows at the dam, and Landsat-derived NDVI composites were utilized. The SPI and SDI revealed a marked increase in drought frequency and severity beginning in the early 1990s, with the most critical period between 2020 and 2023. SPI values below − 1.5 and SDI near − 1.6 confirmed intensifying precipitation deficits and declining inflows. The NDVI showed moderate interannual variability with lower values during drought years, though weak correlation with SPI and SDI suggests that vegetation response is influenced by altitude, land cover, and soil water retention, and agricultural practices including irrigation. Spatial analyses highlighted the greater resilience of forested highlands compared to lower-elevation agricultural areas. Overall, the combined use of these three indices offers a robust picture of drought evolution in the basin. By bridging the gap between single-dimension studies and proposing a comprehensive multi-source monitoring framework, this work provides a more holistic understanding of drought impacts and delivers actionable insights for water resource managers and policymakers.