Misconceptions in school thermodynamics

Based on the results of an investigation of the conceptual difficulties experienced by pupils studying the topic of chemical equilibrium for the Scottish Certificate of Education in higher grade chemistry and for the Certificate of Sixth-Year Studies. The approach to chemical equilibrium at higher grade is based on the concept of equal and opposite rates of reaction while at CSYS level a thermodynamics approach based on the concept of Gibbs free energy is employed. Conceptual difficulties experienced by pupils (and perhaps by teachers) with respect to the thermodynamics approach are discussed.