Adaptive automation, trust, and self-confidence in fault management of time-critical tasks.

An experiment on adaptive automation is described. Reliability of automated fault diagnosis, mode of fault management (manual vs. automated), and fault dynamics affect variables including root mean square error, avoidance of accidents and false shutdowns, subjective trust in the system, and operator self-confidence. Results are discussed in relation to levels of automation, models of trust and self-confidence, and theories of human-machine function allocation. Trust in automation but not self-confidence was strongly affected by automation reliability. Operators controlled a continuous process with difficulty only while performing fault management but could prevent unnecessary shutdowns. Final authority for decisions and action must be allocated to automation in time-critical situations. Automation is any sensing, detection, information-processing, decision-making, or control action that could be performed by humans but is actually performed by machine. In supervisory control, an automated control system is monitored by human operators, who intervene only if they believe that the system is faulty or want to improve