Perceived drivers of conservation agriculture adoption among smallholder farmers in a dry ecological region

Introduction Adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) practices remains a key strategy for building climate resilience among smallholder farmers in dryland regions. This study examines perceived drivers of CA adoption among smallholder farmers in Gwanda District’s semi-arid environments using Zimbabwe’s Pfumvudza/Intwasa programme, the country’s flagship CA initiative, as a case study. Methods A convergent parallel mixed-methods design was employed, combining quantitative surveys (380 administered; n = 307 valid responses, 80.8% response rate) with qualitative data from key informant interviews (n = 20) and focus group discussions (n = 16). Stratified random sampling was used for surveys and purposive sampling for qualitative components across eight wards. Data were analysed using SPSS for descriptive and inferential statistics and NVivo for thematic coding, with triangulation enhancing validity across sources. Results Access to free or subsidized inputs emerged as the strongest adoption driver (89%), with significant gender differences (men 95%, women 85%; p = 0.005). Expected yield improvements motivated 71% of respondents, while climate stress and drought resilience, though under-reported in surveys (21%), dominated qualitative narratives as fundamental push factors. Training and technical support (24%) and community influence (33%) served as critical enablers and government policies demonstrated minimal direct motivational impact (2%), though key informants highlighted its indirect role in building programme credibility. Conclusion Conservation agriculture adoption in this semi-arid context is driven primarily by material incentives and immediate survival needs rather than long-term climate resilience objectives. Heavy dependence on external input provision threatens programme sustainability, requiring deliberate transition strategies toward farmer independence. Gender-responsive interventions are essential, as women face distinct barriers necessitating intensified capacity-building support. Policy recommendations include establishing input credit schemes, strengthening extension systems, formalising institutional coordination, and developing market linkages, measures critical for advancing long-term sustainability and farmer empowerment.