Thermodynamically consistent continuum theory of magnetic particles in high-gradient fields

Magnetic particles underpin a broad range of technologies, from water purification and mineral processing to bioseparations and targeted drug delivery. The dynamics of magnetic particles in high-gradient magnetic fields—encompassing both their transport and eventual capture—arise from the coupled interplay of field-driven drift, fluid advection, and particle-field feedback. These processes remain poorly captured by existing models relying on empirical closures or discrete particle tracking. Here we present a thermodynamically consistent continuum theory for collective magnetic particle transport and capture in high-gradient fields. The framework derives from a free-energy functional that couples magnetic energy, entropic mixing, and steric interactions, yielding a concentration-dependent susceptibility via homogenization theory. The resulting equations unify magnetism, mass transport, and momentum balances without shut-off criteria, allowing field shielding, anisotropic deposition, and boundary-layer confinement to emerge naturally. Simulations predict canonical capture morphologies—axially aligned plumes, crescent-shaped deposits, and nonlinear shielding—across field strengths and flow regimes, consistent with trends reported in prior experimental and modeling studies. By organizing captured particle mass data into a dimensionless phase diagram based on the Mason number, we reveal three distinct regimes—thermodynamically controlled, transitional, and dynamically controlled. This perspective provides a predictive platform for optimization and extension to 3D geometries, and informing digital twin development for industrial-scale high-gradient magnetic separation processes.