The British public and political attitude expression: the emergence of a self-expressive political culture?

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements The author would like to thank all those who kindly commented on the earlier conference paper version of this article. Notes 1. R. J. Dalton, S. E. Scarrow and B. E. Cain, Democracy Transformed?: Expanding Political Opportunities in Advanced Industrial Democracies, Paper 0304, Center for the Study of Democracy eScholarship Repository, University of California, 2003, available at:. 2. Defined here as the particular means by which the public choose to express themselves. This differs from Tilly's original definition (see Tilley, 1978). 3. S. Coleman, 'Election Call 2001: How Politicians and the Public Interacted', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 55, 2002, pp. 731–42; R. Davis and J. Curtice, 'Speaking for the Public: Representation and Audience Participation During the 1997 British General Election Campaign', Harvard Journal of Press Politics, 5, Vol. 1, 2000, pp. 62–77; B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003; K. Ross, 'Political Talk Radio and Democratic Participation: Caller Perspectives on Election Call', Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 26, 2004, pp. 785–801. 4. R. P. Hart, 'Citizen Discourse and Political Participation: A Survey', in W. Lance Bennett and R. M. Entman, eds, Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001. 5. E. P. Bucy and K. S. Gregson,: 'Media Participation: A Legitimizing Mechanism of Mass Democracy', New Media and Society, Vol. 3, 2001, pp. 357–80; K. A. Hill and J. E. Hughes, Cyberpolitics: Citizen Activism in the Age of the Internet, Lanham, MD, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998; R. Ferguson and M. Howell,: Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London, Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004; S. Ward, R. Gibson and W. Lusoli, 'Online Participation and Mobilisation in Britain: Hype, Hope and Reality', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 652–68. 6. W. Lance Bennett, 'Communicating Global Activism', Information, Communication and Society, Vol. 6, 2003b, pp. 143–68. 7. R. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmoderisation: Cultural Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1997; P. Norris, Democratic Phoenix, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002; C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Civic Attitudes and Engagement in Modern Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 616–33; C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Citizenship and Civic Engagement: Attitudes and Behaviour in Britain', Political Studies, Vol. 51, 2003b, pp. 443–68; C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, Citizenship in Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004; P. Whiteley and P. Seyd, High-Intensity Participation: The Dynamics of Party Activism in Britain, Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan Press, 2002. 8. S. Coleman, 'Blogs as Listening Posts Rather than Soapboxes. Afterword', in R. Ferguson and M. Howell, Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London: Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004. 9. W. Lance Bennett, 'Lifestyle Politics and Citizen-Consumers: Identity, Communication and Political Action in Late Modern Societies', in J. Corner and D. Pels, eds, Media and the Restyling of Politics, London and Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 2003. 10. Dalton et al., 2003. 11. Political in this context is to be understood in the broadest possible terms, taking into account what has been termed sub-politics in addition to conventional politics, see U. Beck, The Reinvention of Politics: Rethinking Modernity in the Global Social Order, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1997; and Bennett, 2003b. 12. C. Rallings and M. Thrasher, 'Personality Politics and Protest Voting: The First Elections to the Greater London Authority', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 53, 2000, pp. 753–64. 13. M. Castells, The Information Age Vol II: The Power of Identity, 2nd edn, Oxford, Blackwell, 2004. 14. M. Margolis and D. Resnick, Politics As Usual: The Cyberspace Revolution, Thousand Oaks, CA and London, Sage, 2000. 15. A usenet is an 'electronic bulletin board system', in Hill and Hughes, 1998, p. 48. 16. R. Ferguson and M. Howell,: Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London, Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004; 17. Research by Pattie et al. (2003b) reveals three distinct types of activism—individualistic activism, contact activism and collective activism. Individualistic activism refers to relatively individual acts such as boycotting a product, making a donation, signing a petition, raising funds. Contact activism refers to the contacting of the media and those in authority. Collective activism refers to participating in group activity such as demonstrations or attending political meetings. Collective activism tends to be high-cost in terms of time and effort required, while the cost of individual and contact activism is less costly (p. 448). In borrowing these concepts I have included contact activism as an individualistic form of attitude expression. There are, of course, further attempts to differentiate types of participation; Bucy and Gregson (2001), for instance, distinguish between media and non-media participation; for a discussion of attempts to differentiate types of participation see D. A. Scheufele and W. P. Eveland, 'Perceptions of Public Opinion and Public Opinion Expression', International Journal of Public Opinion Research, Vol. 13, 2001, pp. 25–44. 18. McLeod et al., 1999, distinguish between traditional and non-traditional forms of participation. 'Traditional forms were defined as institutionalised activities such as voting and donating money. Non-traditional participation was defined as participation in deliberative forums', (cited in Scheufele and Eveland, 2001, p. 27). The distinction in this article is broader, namely between traditional modes of expression that existed prior to the emergence of new social movements in the 1960s and non-traditional modes of expression which have emerged since. A note of caution should be sounded. Some forms of expression thought of as quintessentially non-traditional, such as the consumer boycott is, as Friedman reminds us in his study of consumer boycotts, something that started life in the nineteenth century as a response to labour issues and consumer price rises. Today they are used in response to a much broader series of issues, M. Friedman, Consumer Boycotts: Effecting Change Through the Market Place and the Media, New York, Routledge, 1999, pp. 216–7. 19. W. Lance Bennett, 'Lifestyle Politics and Citizen-Consumers: Identity, Communication and Political Action in Late Modern Societies', in J. Corner and D. Pels, eds, Media and the Restyling of Politics, London and Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 2003. 20. See the high-profile stunts of UK campaign group 'Fathers for Justice', or the activities of the Countryside Alliance. 21. P. Norris, Democratic Phoenix, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002;, p. 194. 22. W. Lance Bennett, 'Communicating Global Activism', Information, Communication and Society, Vol. 6, 2003b, pp. 143–68. 23. Lichbach and Almeida, cited in W. Lance Bennett, 'Communicating Global Activism', Information, Communication and Society, Vol. 6, 2003b, pp. 143–68. 24. L. J. Gurak and J. Logie, 'Internet Protests, form Texts to Web', in M. McCaughey and M. D. Ayers, eds, Cyberactivism: Online Activism in Theory and Practice, London, Routledge, 2003. 25. L. J. Gurak and J. Logie, 'Internet Protests, form Texts to Web', in M. McCaughey and M. D. Ayers, eds, Cyberactivism: Online Activism in Theory and Practice, London, Routledge, 2003., pp. 44–5. 26. R. J. Dalton, S. E. Scarrow and B. E. Cain, Democracy Transformed?: Expanding Political Opportunities in Advanced Industrial Democracies, Paper 0304, Center for the Study of Democracy eScholarship Repository, University of California, 2003, available at: . 27. W. Lance Bennett, 'Lifestyle Politics and Citizen-Consumers: Identity, Communication and Political Action in Late Modern Societies', in J. Corner and D. Pels, eds, Media and the Restyling of Politics, London and Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 2003. 28. Office of the E-envoy,: In the Service of Democracy: A Consultation Paper on a Policy for Electronic Democracy, 2002, available at: , accessed 8 October 2004, p. 29. 29. Electoral Commission,: Attitudes Towards Voting and the Political Process, 2003, available at: , accessed 3 October 2004. 30. R. Ferguson and M. Howell,: Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London, Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004; 31. B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003; 32. See B. Gunter, News and the Net, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003. 33. B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003;, p. 77. 34. B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003;, p. 77. 35. B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003;, p. 77. 36. See, for instance, recent television and radio shows such as: Any Answers, Ask the Leader, Election Call, the Nikki Campbell Show, the Politics Show. 37. C. Bromley, J. Curtice and B. Seyd, 'Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform', in A. Park, J. Curtice, K. Thomson, L. Jarvis and C. Bromley, eds, British Social Attitudes: The 18th Report, London, Sage, 2001. 38. C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Civic Attitudes and Engagement in Modern Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 616–33;, C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Citizenship and Civic Engagement: Attitudes and Behaviour in Britain', Political Studies, Vol. 51, 2003b, pp. 443–68;. 39. C. Bromley, J. Curtice and B. Seyd, 'Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform', in A. Park, J. Curtice, K. Thomson, L. Jarvis and C. Bromley, eds, British Social Attitudes: The 18th Report, London, Sage, 2001. 40. J. Curtice and M. Steed, 'An Analysis of the Results', in D. Butler and D. Kavanagh, eds, The British General Election of 2001, Basingstoke, UK, Palgrave, 2002. 41. D. Butler and M. Westlake, British Politics and European Elections 1999, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2000. 42. P. Norris, Democratic Phoenix, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002;, p. 197. 43. C. Bromley, J. Curtice and B. Seyd, 'Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform', in A. Park, J. Curtice, K. Thomson, L. Jarvis and C. Bromley, eds, British Social Attitudes: The 18th Report, London, Sage, 2001., pp. 201–2. 44. C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Civic Attitudes and Engagement in Modern Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 631. While there is always a disparity between what people say they would do and actually do, Bromley et al. show that the number saying they would contact a radio or TV programme or newspaper had risen from 14% in 1986 to 22% in 2000. 45. C. Bromley, J. Curtice and B. Seyd, 'Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform', in A. Park, J. Curtice, K. Thomson, L. Jarvis and C. Bromley, eds, British Social Attitudes: The 18th Report, London, Sage, 2001. 46. Similarly, the number of complaints about the railways received by the rail passengers council rose from 8259 in 1994–5 to 18 777 in 1998–9, before falling to 7363 in 2003–4, RPC Annual Report, 2004, available at: . 47. S. Ward, R. Gibson and W. Lusoli, 'Online Participation and Mobilisation in Britain: Hype, Hope and Reality', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 652–68. 48. Technorati, cited in Ferguson and Howell, Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London, Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004; 49. See B. Gunter, News and the Net, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003. 50. Taylor Nelson Sofres, cited in P. Dunleavy, H. Margetts, S. Bastow and J. Tinkler, E-Government and Policy Innovation in Several Liberal Democracies, Paper presented to the Political Studies Association Annual Conference, University of Leicester, UK, 11–13 April, 2003. 51. Postwatch Annual Report 2004, available at: http://www.postwatch.co.uk, accessed 10 November 2004. 52. C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Civic Attitudes and Engagement in Modern Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 616–33; 53. S. Ward, R. Gibson and W. Lusoli, 'Online Participation and Mobilisation in Britain: Hype, Hope and Reality', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 664. 54. C. Bromley, J. Curtice and B. Seyd, 'Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform', in A. Park, J. Curtice, K. Thomson, L. Jarvis and C. Bromley, eds, British Social Attitudes: The 18th Report, London, Sage, 2001, p. 202. 55. C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Citizenship and Civic Engagement: Attitudes and Behaviour in Britain', Political Studies, Vol. 51, 2003b, pp. 443–68; 56. S. Ward, R. Gibson and W. Lusoli, 'Online Participation and Mobilisation in Britain: Hype, Hope and Reality', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 665. 57. C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Civic Attitudes and Engagement in Modern Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 627. 58. R. Worcester, Consumer Activism in Great Britain. Study conducted for the National Consumer Council, 2002, available at: , accessed 15 July 2004. 59. P. Norris, Democratic Phoenix, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002;, p. 202. 60. B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003;, p. 88. 61. R. Davis and J. Curtice, 'Speaking for the Public: Representation and Audience Participation During the 1997 British General Election Campaign', Harvard Journal of Press Politics, 5, Vol. 1, 2000, p. 68. 62. S. Ward, R. Gibson and W. Lusoli, 'Online Participation and Mobilisation in Britain: Hype, Hope and Reality', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 665. 63. S. Ward, R. Gibson and W. Lusoli, 'Online Participation and Mobilisation in Britain: Hype, Hope and Reality', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 665. 64. C. Pattie, P. Seyd and P. Whiteley, 'Civic Attitudes and Engagement in Modern Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 56, 2003, p. 627. 65. B. McNair, M. Hibberd and P. Schlesinger, Mediated Access: Broadcasting and Democratic Participation in the Age of Mediated Politics, Luton, UK, Luton University Press, 2003;, p. 89. 66. Scott and Street, op. cit. 67. R. Ferguson and M. Howell,: Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London, Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004; 68. M. Margolis and D. Resnick, Politics As Usual: The Cyberspace Revolution, Thousand Oaks, CA and London, Sage, 2000.; S. Coleman, 'Blogs as Listening Posts Rather than Soapboxes. Afterword', in R. Ferguson and M. Howell, Political Blogs: Craze or Convention? London: Hansard Society, 2004, available at: , accessed 7 September 2004.; R. Davis and D. Owen, New Media and American Politics, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998; K. A. Hill and J. E. Hughes, Cyberpolitics: Citizen Activism in the Age of the Internet, Lanham, MD, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998