Disability-specific transport disadvantage in Indian cities: Barriers and enablers beyond universal design

Transport disadvantage disproportionately affects persons with disabilities (PWDs), yet most studies treat them as a homogeneous group and focus narrowly on infrastructural design. This study examines the relative importance of mobility barriers and enablers across different disability categories - locomotor, visual, intellectual, and multiple disabilities - in two Indian cities (Varanasi and Kozhikode). Using survey data from 155 PWDs and applying the Bayesian Best–Worst Method, we generated disability-specific rankings of barriers and enablers. Further, a latent profile analysis is developed to assess how differently PWDs with different socio-demographic and disability characteristics perceive mobility barriers and enablers. The results show that while infrastructural barriers dominate for locomotor and visual groups, transportation and attitudinal barriers are more critical for intellectual disabilities, and policy and administrative barriers weigh most heavily for multiple disabilities. Correspondingly, enablers also vary: locomotor and visual groups prioritise ramps and obstacle-free paths; intellectual disabilities rely on clear bus branding and accessible navigation apps; and multiple disabilities emphasize technological aids and policy reforms. Further, latent profile analysis revealed six clusters for mobility barriers and two clusters for mobility enablers, indicating heterogeneity in perceptions of PWDs. These findings reveal pronounced barrier–enabler asymmetries, demonstrating that universal design alone is insufficient to ensure inclusive mobility. Instead, disability-specific strategies that integrate infrastructural retrofits, information clarity, administrative reforms, and attitudinal change are needed to reduce transport disadvantage and advance inclusive urban mobility.