Understanding Student Adoption of Generative AI Chatbots in Higher Education: An Integrated Tam–tri Approach

Abstract The rapid integration of generative artificial intelligence (AI) in education has created a growing need to understand the factors that shape students’ adoption of these technologies. This study examines the behavioural, cognitive, and ethical determinants of AI chatbot use among university students. Drawing on the Technology Acceptance Model and the Technology Readiness Index, the study incorporates additional constructs, including transparency and ethics. Data were collected through an online questionnaire administered to 285 students and analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). The findings indicate that optimism significantly influences perceived ease of use, which, together with perceived usefulness and transparency/ethics, positively affects students’ intention to use AI chatbots. Transparency/ethics also exerts a direct effect on actual usage behaviour, underscoring the increasing importance of trust and responsible AI in educational contexts. The study provides both theoretical and practical implications for developers, educators, and policymakers seeking to encourage meaningful and responsible AI adoption in higher education.