A Theory of School and Classroom Organization

This article describes a theory relating alterable elements of school and classroom organization to effects on student achievement. Four critical elements are proposed: quality of instruction, appropriate levels of instruction, incentive, and time (QAIT). Changes in each of these elements are held to be multiplicatively related to changes in student achievement, supporting a view that multiple elements may have to be addressed if innovative instructional methods are to produce substantial gains in student achievement. Research evidence on each of the four components is briefly reviewed, and the QAIT perspective is applied to a discussion of findings from two areas of research: individualized instruction and ability grouping.