State, media and civil society in the information warfare over Ukraine: citizen curators of digital disinformation

Digital disinformation has become an increasingly prominent topic in both public and academic debates. In 2016, the World Economic Forum identified online warfare and disinformation as one of the top ten global risks. 1 The use of disinformation-which is distinct from misinformation in being not only false but false as part of a 'purposeful effort to mislead, deceive, or confuse' 2preoccupies western audiences. 3 Particularly in the wake of the crisis in Ukraine that erupted in 2013-2014, the Kremlin has been accused of orchestrating disinformation campaigns against the Ukrainian government and western countries by using online trolls and state-controlled online outlets such as RT (formerly known as Russia Today), Sputnik and Life News. 4 This has led to a wave of counter-disinformation measures in the West to combat what is seen as a threat