Are Perceptions of Discrimination Unidimensional, Oppositional, or Intersectional? Examining the Relationship among Perceived Racial–Ethnic-, Gender-, and Age-Based Discrimination

This study investigates the relationship among perceptions of racial–ethnic, age, and gender discrimination for racial–ethnic minority individuals. Three broad frameworks for understanding discrimination are described: unidimensional, oppositional, and intersectional. The strengths of each approach are assessed by analyzing data from the General Social Surveys (2002, 2006, and 2010). Findings provide no support for the oppositional framework, qualified support for the unidimensional framework, and strong support for the intersectional framework. Many racial–ethnic minorities perceive discrimination on the basis of only one social status. Among older respondents, however, more than half of those who perceive racial–ethnic discrimination also perceive discrimination based on age. Half of the racial–ethnic women surveyed who perceive racial–ethnic discrimination also perceive gender discrimination. Moreover, perceptions of gender-, age-, and race-based discrimination are significantly and positively correlated with one another. The results highlight the benefits of using an intersectional framework to conceptualize and analyze multiple forms of discrimination.