Human–machine collaborative rehabilitation toward Industry 5.0: principles, technologies and challenges

Motor dysfunction resulting from central nervous system (CNS) injuries poses significant rehabilitation challenges due to insufficient and unevenly distributed global resources. Robot-assisted rehabilitation has emerged as a promising solution to enhance patient recovery and alleviate the burden on healthcare professionals. Here, we review current rehabilitation approaches for CNS injuries and identify the multidimensional needs of patients with motor dysfunction. We categorise rehabilitation robots based on the degree of patient involvement and the capacity for human-machine collaborative learning. Special attention is given to the concept of human–machine collaborative rehabilitation (HMCR) within the framework of Industry 5.0, emphasising its pivotal role in promoting human-centric, adaptive, and sustainable rehabilitation. Key technological advancements are discussed, including motion intention recognition techniques, advanced control strategies, rehabilitation assessment methods, and ethical and accessibility considerations. Finally, we explore the challenges and future directions in developing collaborative rehabilitation robots, highlighting their potential to transform clinical practice and improve patient outcomes.