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Gymnosperms are a very old and small group of plants compared to angiosperms. Contemporary science recognizes about 650 extant conifers worldwide. This review focuses on species of the Pinaceae family found in Europe. There are 23 species from the genera Abies, Larix, Picea, and Pinus. Some of them are widespread in Europe, but others have fragmented and limited distribution and are classified as relic, endemic, or endangered. The aim of this review is providing cumulative information about the variability of needle morpho-anatomy, terpenes, and n-alkanes, as well as the genetics of the Pinaceae species, native to Europe. The first morpho-anatomical examinations of needles were conducted in the 19th century. A lot of species have been investigated up to now, but the population variability of many conifer species is still not known. The composition and abundance of terpenes differ between genera and families but also within the same genus, pointing to their taxonomic importance. n-Alkanes on the needle wax surfaces of conifers are sometimes very useful markers of species and population variability. The most abundant n-alkanes in Abies species are nonacosane (C29), hentriacontane (C31), or heptacosane (C27), whereas in Larix decidua and the majority of Picea species, C31 is predominant. C31 and C29 are the dominant n-alkanes in the genus Pinus. The most extensive population-genetic studies of European representatives of the Pinaceae family have focused on Abies alba, Picea abies, Pinus nigra, and Pinus sylvestris, but also examined endemic species such as Abies borisii-regis, A. cephalonica, A. nebrodensis, and Picea omorika. These studies hold significant practical value in assessing species’ evolutionary potential, devising strategies for long-term species conservation, identifying centers of diversity, detecting relict and ancestral populations, unveiling cryptic species and hybrids, and elucidating the taxonomic significance of species. These investigations are of great value not only on the biodiversity level, but also on the levels of ecology, physiology, taxonomy, and evolution.
Nikolić et al. (Wed,) studied this question.