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A negative net migration mainly happens due to push factors such as lack of employment and business opportunities, infrastructure, and industries (Lee 1966;Sarkar 2014;Chandrasekhar and Sharma 2014).Since the formation of the state in 1956, Kerala has attracted migrant labourers from the bordering states, particularly Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.From 1961 to 1991, workers from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka complemented the local workers in filling up the requirements of workers in the state, especially blue-collar workers (Kumar 2016).While most of the labour migration was driven by the social linkages and networks of workers, multinational companies also contributed towards mobilising workers from the northern states such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, using intermediaries to work on their projects in Kerala.The Government of Kerala has also noted the increase in the number of workers from states such as West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand (GOK 2009).
Pinak Sarkar (2024) studied this question.