Mangrove-derived nanoparticles: A review of synthesis and biomedical applications

A rich range of flora and animals that can adapt to terrestrial and marine habitats can be found in mangroves, which are regarded as hotspots for biodiversity. Among the resources developed to synthesize nanoparticles(NPs) using bioactive compounds, mangroves have attracted considerable attention due to their appealing properties: (i) biocompatibility, (ii) high surface area, (iii) non-toxicity, (iv) used as precursors for NPs synthesis, (v) act as reducing agents, (vi) possibility for green synthesis of NPs, (vii) eco-friendly, (viii) cost-efficient (ix) high porosity, (x) stable, and (xi) bio-friendly. This review presents different synthesis methods of mangrove-derived nanoparticles (MDNPs) from the methodological and mechanistic point of view. The enzymes are responsible for MDNP synthesis including nitrate reductase, nitrate-dependent reductases, and other enzymes, and the physicochemical behavior of MDNPs including drug loading, drug release, particle size, zeta potential, and stability are briefly discussed. This review also presents why mangroves have been chosen to design NPs in various biomedical applications. An important result is the environmental sustainability of MDNP synthesis. Utilizing mangrove extracts, roots (pneumatophores), or soils enables the synthesis of NPs without toxic chemicals, supporting green chemistry initiatives and scalability. MDNPs act as multifunctional agents in biomedical application, while adhering to sustainability and environmental safety principles. Novelty includes green synthesis using mangrove extracts/soils, natural bioreduction, environmentally friendly production, natural organic coatings. Challenges include scalability, polydispersity, heterogeneity, reproducibility, incomplete reactions, purification difficulties. Future promise includes biomedical applications, drug delivery, sustainable nanomedicine, therapeutic and environmental use. Mangrove ecosystems offer a promising, environmentally friendly, and economically viable source for the green synthesis of NPs. The scientific value of MDNPs lies in their unique bioactive compound-based synthesis, environmentally friendly production, and diverse biomedical applications. Mangroves produce bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, and other secondary metabolites, which serve as natural reducing and capping agents in the green synthesis of Ag-NPs and AuNPs. Their synthesis exploits natural biochemicals from mangrove plants, making them sustainable alternatives for biomedical, and pharmaceutical applications while supporting conservation of unique mangrove ecosystems. • Various synthesis methods of MDNPs from both methodological and mechanistic perspectives. • Enzymes involved in MDNP synthesis are highlighted, including nitrate reductase and nitrate-dependent reductases. • Key physicochemical properties of MDNPs are briefly covered, such as drug loading, drug release, particle size, zeta potential, and stability. • Explains the rationale behind selecting mangroves for designing NPs for different biomedical applications.