Multi-scale Characterization of Pore Structure Damage in Limestone Grottoes Under the Coupling Effect of Salt Freeze–Thaw

Key Points

• Damage to pore structure increases significantly with repeated freeze-thaw cycles.
• Specifically, salt-induced freeze-thaw processes led to marked degradation in limestone grotto integrity.
• Analysis of limestone grottoes across various sites highlights the coupling effect of environmental factors.
• Findings suggest the need for conservation strategies for limestone structures under climate stress.