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Procedures previously recommended by various authors for the estimation of scores, residual or basefree measures of change, and other kinds of difference scores are examined. A procedure proposed by Lord is extended to obtain more precise estimates, and an alternative to the Tucker-Damarin-Messick procedure is offered. A consideration of the purposes for which change measures have been sought in the past leads to a series of recommended procedures which solve research and personnel-decision problems without estimation of change scores for individuals.
Cronbach et al. (1970) studied this question.