To study whether air pollution is detrimental to reproductive development is imperative. In the absence of randomized trials to study the effects of air pollution on human health, data from observational studies have been utilized in which the researchers attempted to capture the causal associations between air pollution and the health outcomes. Many of these studies rely on parametric assumptions which may be limiting. In this tutorial, we explain and implement the nonparametric empirical likelihood (EL) Algorithm within the causal inference framework of a classic methodology and a newer technique based on machine learning tools. We show the competitive results of the assumption free EL in simulations. We also apply the developed methods to study the causal association between PM2.5 and NO2 exposure and anogenital distance at birth, a marker of androgen activity.
Sharghi et al. (Wed,) studied this question.