This systematic review and meta-analysis examines the applications, effectiveness, and challenges of emerging technologies for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) across primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Technologies investigated include mobile-assisted language learning apps, AI-powered tools (chatbots, automated writing evaluation, intelligent tutoring systems), virtual/augmented reality environments, gamification platforms, and social media tools. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 33 experimental and quasi-experimental studies (N = 3,181) from Web of Science, Scopus, and ERIC (2015–2024) were analyzed. The random-effects meta-analysis revealed a small-to-moderate positive overall effect (Hedges’ g = 0.38, 95% CI 0.26, 0.50, p < 0.001), with substantial heterogeneity (I 2 = 90.14%). Subgroup analyses exploring sources of this heterogeneity indicated effect sizes varied by educational level (primary: g = 0.29; secondary: g = 0.35; tertiary: g = 0.44) and technology type, with VR/AR yielding the largest effects. Across skill domains, productive skills (speaking and writing) showed greater gains than receptive skills (reading and listening), while vocabulary acquisition and grammar also improved significantly. The larger tertiary-level effects likely reflect greater learner autonomy and more sophisticated technological infrastructure. Trim-and-fill adjustment for publication bias yielded a corrected estimate of g = 0.28. Thematic synthesis identified five effective pedagogical practices: personalization, authentic contexts, collaborative learning, multimodal integration, and cultural responsiveness. Key challenges include infrastructure gaps, insufficient teacher technological pedagogical training, and ethical concerns regarding data privacy, algorithmic bias, and technology over-reliance among younger learners. Longitudinal research is urgently needed to assess long-term proficiency gains, sustainability of technology adoption, and evolving teacher–learner attitudes. • Meta-analysis shows small positive effect (g=0.38) of emerging tech on TEFL outcomes. • Mobile learning, AI, and VR/AR are most prevalent technologies in TEFL across levels. • Effectiveness of emerging tech increases from primary to tertiary education levels. • Five areas of effective practice identified for integrating emerging tech in TEFL. • Review uniquely addresses ethical and privacy concerns in emerging tech use for TEFL.
Liu et al. (Fri,) studied this question.