PROTOCOL: Community‐oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder, and fear and improve legitimacy and satisfaction with police: a systematic review

In late 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama established the President's Task Force on 21st Century Policing to respond to national concerns about police-community relations. The Task Force's report examined policing strategies to maximize both effective crime prevention and public trust and confidence in the police (President's Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015). Community-oriented policing (COP) features heavily throughout the report as one such strategy to promote community engagement in public safety and collaborative approaches to crime prevention and crisis management. However, while organizations like the International Association of Chiefs of Police have focused on developing strategies to help local police departments implement the Task Force's recommendations,1 the priorities of the new Trump administration have so far signalled a shift away from community relations and collaborative reform toward a “law and order” approach. The challenges that led to the creation of the President's Task Force, the emphasis on COP as a potential response, and shifting political orientations toward policing communities recall an earlier crisis in American policing. During the 1960s and 1970s, rising crime and challenges to the effectiveness and legitimacy of a broad range of criminal justice practices (e.g. Martinson, 1974; President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, 1967) led to criticisms of the “standard model” of policing, which consists of generic, reactive, short-term strategies to prevent or respond to crime that rely heavily on traditional law enforcement powers (Weisburd Spelman see also Weisburd Goldstein, 1990; Gottfredson Reiss Jr., 1971; Skogan Skogan Weisburd Skolnick Skogan Weisburd Zhao, Lovrich, Mastrofski, Willis, Fielding, 1995; Lo Putt, 2010; Roché, 2005; Skolnick Donnelly, 2013). In the United Kingdom (specifically England and Wales) the concept of “neighbourhood policing” emerged in the early 1980s, inspired by both the rise in popularity of community policing in the United States and a period of civil unrest and racial tension at home (Longstaff, Willer, Chapman, Czarnomski, Davis, Henderson, Donnelly, 2013). Davis et al. (2003) report that the underlying features of community policing in developing countries are relatively similar, but implementation can be extremely challenging. Community policing has been implemented as part of order restoration and reform efforts, as a way of reaching out to the public to rebuild trust and accountability. However, the authors report that developing the relationships with the community necessary to achieve full collaboration can be extremely difficult where there is very low confidence in the police and a history of corruption, instability, racism, and/or colonialism in which the police, as agents of government, have often been complicit. Nonetheless, community policing has been advocated as a method of developing or restoring democratic policing principles and rebuilding public trust; the United Nations Police for community policing in its standard the popularity of community policing the 1990s, the first of the 21st a in the of police those serving community police officers This may be to the period and also the of which many police departments officers to more duties 2004). However, scholars (e.g. et al., Weisburd Skogan, 2006; Weisburd Weisburd et al., The of community-oriented policing of effectiveness for to of safety and to the of disorder in their community are and with fear of crime One underlying is the which that fear by disorder to a in and citizens to or even the more disorder and more serious crime (e.g. Skogan, 1990; see also 2004; et al., As have the range of strategies that have been the of community-oriented policing are and across and have not consistent in the United States foot patrol was as a key part of community policing in the 1980s but has out of more (Weisburd Moore, Skogan & Frydl, 2004). in a national survey of police in the United States, that more than of the very or extremely to to implement community-oriented policing and difficult to the of their officers for community-oriented (see also Skogan & Hartnett, and that police departments about to communities in to that community-oriented policing not to of the of and in community policing the to these have been on community policing that of the by and Skogan and and Weisburd and all that the crime prevention of community-oriented policing is is implemented approaches to and also that many of the strategies that have been used the of community policing have not been and those that have on However, these more for the of community policing to fear of crime and police-community relations. & the and of community-oriented policing to similar across of community policing at a there was a but on a in with police, and for of disorder and police they not that community-oriented policing fear of This is for an to the by et al. 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