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European general cargo flows are being organised as part of multimodal chains. These flows represent both technological achievements and ortanizational accomplishments, since the landward connections are often controlled by the shipping lines. Despite recent events, europe remains highly fragmented geographically, politically and economically. Further, constraints and opportunities for intermodalism pose additional difficulties, with height restrictions prohibiting double stack service and alternatives offered by competitive inland shipping along several important corridors.
Charler et al. (1994) studied this question.